The Art and History of Rhetoric

"Rhetoric is the study of effective speaking and writing. And the art of persuasion. And many other things." (Rhetoricae 1). Originating from the times of Ancient Greece, the study of rhetoric has played an extremely crucial part in the ways in which humans in society interact with each other and most importantly, the manner in which humans practice the art of persuasion and argumentation. The study of rhetoric has undergone many changes and progressions since its genesis leading up to most prominently, the 19th century. In modern times, it is necessary to be reminded of the importance of rhetoric. Rhetoric, after all, is the underlying concept of everyday speech, writing, and conversation that we witness today.

The documented birthplace of classical rhetoric is known to be Athens, Greece. Because of Athens' governmental structure of democracy, "every Athenian man" had a right to "speak to persuade his countrymen" of certain government issues (McKay 1). As a result, a man's ability in rhetoric determined his "success and influence in Athens" (McKay 1). To suit the growing need to be educated and wise, a group of "itinerant poets and teachers" called Sophists, from the Greek word 'sophos' meaning wisdom, set out to create schools specialized in teaching rhetoric (Dunkle 1).

A well known Sophist from the time period was Isocrates. Of all the Grecian schools in Athens that specialized in rhetoric, Isocrates' Academy was the most distinguished. In his life time, Isocrates educated his students, expecting three qualities: natural ability, training, and experience in them all in order for mastery in style, diction, and oratory skill. In his works, Isocrates explains his thoughts in the use of rhetoric, "With this faculty we both contend against others on matters which are open to dispute and seek light for ourselves on things which are unknown" (Murphy 1).

For this special education however, the Sophists only agreed to tutor young Athenian men in the art of speech and debate in return for a large sum of money. Because of this negative quality in the Sophists, the ancient Greeks viewed the men as "[men] who manipulated the truth for financial gain" (McKay 1). Among those who disagreed with the Sophists' methods was Aristotle, a man whose works would "in many ways set the terms for the discipline for centuries to come" (Rhetoricae 1). 

Aristotle found that the Sophists' methods in teaching rhetoric were incorrect and sought out his own method and definitions to the study of rhetoric. He wanted to change rhetoric into a "useful tool in helping audiences see and understand truth" (McKay 1). In his work, The Art of Rhetoric, Aristotle introduced his ideas through the various forms of Aristotelian argument. Aristotle saw that there were "three routes to change the mind of another person": logos, pathos, and ethos (Straker 1).  Through these appeals of logic, emotion, and morals and other ideas Aristotle had in his system for rhetoric, Aristotle's teachings of rhetoric have been carried on in education even through the 18th and 19th centuries where "universities required students to study" Aristotle's works (McKay 1). 

Around the time period of 200-196 B.C. when Rome conquered Greece, the Greek teachings of rhetoric began to spread to the educators of Ancient Rome. Among these educators was Cicero, a philosopher and statesman, who because of his background in the Greek language, was able to share the knowledge of Greek education in rhetoric to the Romans. Being born into an upper middle class family and his father being an equestrian knight with connections within Rome, Cicero received an education normally " reserved for those with an aristocratic status" (Pullman 1). Cicero studied in Greece under the wing of Greek teachers and learned about ancient Greek philosophers as well as historians rhetoric. With this information, Cicero was able to translate rhetoric theories into Latin, making the information accessible to those in Rome. Taking the subject of rhetoric into his own hands, Cicero stressed that a liberal education would call for success in persuasion. "To be persuasive a man needed knowledge in history, politics, art, literature, ethics, law, and medicine" and with this education, a man could "connect with any audience he addressed" (McKay 1).

Another great Roman rhetorician was Quintilian who defined rhetoric as "the good man speaking well" (Lewis 1). In Quintilian's De Oratore, he emphasizes the importance of five components necessary to the speech writing process known as the Five Cannons: inventio: invention, dispositio: arrangement, elocutio: style, memoria: memory, and actio: delivery. According to Quintilian, these five cannons helped a person speak and write eloquently and is therefore an "important step" in making people "informed citizens" (Picirillo 1).

Moving into the middle ages, rhetoric changed from "political to religious discourse" (McKay 1). The ability to speak and write effectively shifted from having an influence on the state to having a more central influence on the Church. To many church fathers and leaders during the middle ages, the art of rhetoric could be used for persuasion in converting the unconverted into the Catholic/Christian faith. Figures such as St. Augustine reasoned that the skill of effective speaking could also be used to "better spread the gospel" and to also "preach" the word of God (McKay 1). 

During the Medieval Period, rhetoric, along with "other subjects such as grammar, rhetoric, logic, Latin, astronomy, philosophy and mathematics" was one of the "core courses" offered in universities (Carry 1). Students of the Medieval Period relied on Aristotle's works to broaden their skill and knowledge in rhetoric and spent hours a day in doing this. Although education in the Medieval Period heavily emphasized rhetoric, "few new contributions" were made in the concept of rhetoric (McKay 1).

In the Renaissance time frame, rhetoric underwent a period of rediscovery. Aside from the rediscovery and rebirth of the subjects of art and science, people during the Renaissance were able to uncover old texts and works from numerous rhetoricians such as Quintilian and were able to re experience the brilliance of Quintilian's teachings such as his idea of the Five Cannons in De Oratore. Another one of Quintilian's works, De Inventione, made its way into schools all over Europe and became the influence for new books on rhetoric during the Renaissance time period, allowing people to utilize and study rhetoric "opposed to Latin or ancient Greek" (McKay 1).

Leading into the Renaissance through the 19th century, rhetoric continued to develop and became an apparent importance in many influential figure's works. From Sir Francis Bacon's The Advancement of Learning, "The duty and office of Rhetoric is, to apply Reason to Imagination for the better moving of the will. For we see Reason is disturbed in the administration thereof by three means; by Illaqueation or Sophism, which pertains to Logic; by Imagination or Impression, which pertains to Rhetoric; and by Passion or Affection, which pertains to Morality." In 1783, "Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles-Lettres," was published, a book written by Hugh Blair which remains a staple for education in rhetoric to this very day. Hugh Blair's publication emphasized the importance of rhetoric in education. The dedication of multiple departments in universities in Europe and America during the 19th century made the importance of rhetoric clearly evident.

Rhetoric is a study that is overlooked and does not receive proper recognition for the contributions that it has made to our literature and methods of communication that exist today. The works of the rhetoricians Isocrates, Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian and other many great rhetoricians have made a major impact on our understanding of the art of rhetoric and its importance in our every day conversation, writing, and even arguments. The art of rhetoric has flourished since its conception during Ancient Greek times and will continue to have a major influence in our future understanding of the importance of effective speaking, writing, and communication.

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Works Cited

1. Carrey, John. "Medieval Education." Medieval Life. N.p. 2000. Web. 26 July 2012. <http://www.medieval-life.net/education.htm>.
2. Dunkle, Roger. "Philosophical Background of the Fifth Century B.C." The Classical Origins of Western Culture. N.p. 1986. Web. 26 July 2012. <http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/dunkle/studyguide/sophists.htm>.
3. Lewis, Brian. "Quintilian on Rhetoric." Michigan State University. N.p. 1990. Web. 26 July 2012. <https://www.msu.edu/user/lewisbr4/980/rhetrric.html>.
4. McKay, Brett. "Classical Rhetoric 101: A Brief History." The Art of Manliness. 30 Nov 2010. Web. 26 July 2012. < http://artofmanliness.com/2010/11/30/history-of-rhetoric/>.
5. Murphy, Keith. "Isocrates." Isocrates. N.p. 1998. Web. 26 July 2012. <http://www.keithmurphy.info/399/Isoc.htm>.
6. Picirillo, Douglas. "Rhetorical Study in Ancient Rome." Public Speaking The ACA Open Knowledge Online Guide. N.p. 2009. Web. 26 July 2012. <http://textcommons.org/node/109>.
7. Pullman, George. "Cicero: On Rhetoric." 8170. 25 Nov 2009. Web. 26 July 2012. <http://8170.pbworks.com/w/page/1115545/CIcero%3A%20On%20Rhetoric> .
8. Rhetoricae, Silva. "What is Rhetoric?" The Forest of Rhetoric. 26 Feb 2007. Web. 26 July 2012. <http://rhetoric.byu.edu/>.
9. Straker, David. "A Brief History of Rhetoric." Changing Minds. N.p. 2002. Web. 26 July 2012. <http://changingminds.org/disciplines/rhetoric/rhetoric_history.htm>.